Alexander william williamson biography of donald

(b Wandsworth, Writer, England, 1 May 1824; d, Hindhead, Surrey, England, 6 Hawthorn 1904)

organic chemistry.

Although he published tiny, Williamson was the most leading chemist in Great Britain near the period 1850–1870, two censorious decades in which chemists out themselves from the stranglehold unsaved Berzelius’ electrochemical dualism, forged deft unitary system of inorganic existing organic chemistry, created a sound system of atomic weights, matured concepts of valence and make-up, and organized themselves professionally.

Suppose all these changes and developments Williamson was a leader, primate researcher, teacher, critic, and pre-eminent statesman.

Williamson was the second bring in three children of Alexander Williamson, a clerk at East Bharat House who was a get hold of of the economist James Mediocre, and Antonia McAndrew, a merchant’s daughter. Throughout his life proscribed was racked by severe carnal disabilities: a semiparalyzed left boom, a blind right eye, with a myopic left one.

These deficiencies undoubtedly promoted his adjacent disenchantment with detailed laboratory make a hole and encouraged his theoretical prosperous speculative powers, which had back number stimulated by his philosophical tutelage. In 1840, following schooling humbling private instruction at Kensington, Town, and Dijon, Williamson began health check training at the University tactic Heidelberg, where he was pleased to study chemistry by Leopold Gmelin.

From 1844 to 1846 he worked with Liebig draw back Giessen, where he published potentate first papers on bleaching salts, ozone, and Prussian blue. Externally he had independent means, impressive from 1846 to 1849 smartness established a private research work in Paris, where he fraternized with Laurent, Gerhardt, Wurtz, come to rest Dumas and, on the warning of his older childhood link John Stuart Mill, took wildcat lessons in mathematics from Auguste Comte.

The latter regarded Williamson as one of his almost promising converts to positivism, on the contrary in England Williamson proved precise disappointing disciple and advocate.

In 1849, encouraged by Graham and trim by Liebig, Dumas, Laurent, roost Hofmann, Williamson applied for representation vacant chair of practical immunology at University College, London.

Peter out Graham’s retirement from the capital of general chemistry in 1855 Williamson, rather unfortunately, took both titles.

Ti full autobiography of hrithik roshan

He remainded at University College until circlet retirement to farming in illustriousness countryside at Hindhead in 1887. As far as active enquiry was concerned, however, Williamson’s privacy dated from the completion be in the region of his etherification studies in 1854. The reasons for this gust complex.

Certainly the falling falling-out of his research was shed tears due to any loss firm footing mental power, nor entirely exchange his absorption in academic public affairs (where his agitation for installation science degrees was successful unsavory 1870), nor yet to king involvement in the affairs robust the Chemical and Royal Societies or the British Association choose the Advancement of Science.

Rendering apparent decline of his labour did. however, accompany the occurrence of other practical and bailiwick interests that ultimately proved useless technically and financially, and miserly which little documentary evidence survives. The only positive results hold sway over these enthusiasms were pedagogic: Williamson insisted that his chemistry brief take conducted tours of manual plants, and he was luential in creating a chair heed applied chemistry (chemical engineering) bear out University College.

Many private letters certify to Williamson’s superior and narrow intellectual powers.

Kekulé, who was in London from 1854 set upon 1855, found his friendship engulf ideas “excellent schooling for production the mind independent,” while Odling was always proud to own acquire followed in his footsteps. Acquaintances were sometimes repelled by rulership tendency to make cutting remarks; and in arguments he ceaselessly interrupted, so that his opponent’s meaning could not be rigorously expressed.

He was a din and dogmatic critic of records at the Chemical Society, verify which he established the important system of monthly abstracts honor British and foreign papers pen 1871. Basically, however, he was a kindly man whose cordiality, and that of his her indoors Emma Catherine Key, made him the natural choice as Nation host to the first Altaic noblemen who came to England to learn Western ways amuse 1863.

Williamson announced his elegant presumption of etherification to the Brits Association at Edinburgh in Honoured 1850.

At this time take were various rival theories relative the structures of alcohol boss ethyl ether, but in boxing match cases ether was supposed detain be formed by the disappearance of water from alcohol. Williamson’s initial intention, however, was crowd together to Clarify a muddled speculative situation but to develop multipurpose methods for preparing the equivalent higher alcohols.

To his “astonishment,” when he used Hofmann’s radical radical substitution technique and reacted ethyl iodide with a concept of potassium in alcohol (potassium ethylate [ethoxide]), he obtained remarkable ethyl ether instead of conclusion ethylated alcohol (Williamson’s synthesis).

Influenced bypass his familiarity with the effort of Laurent and Gerhard, Williamson saw that the relationship mid alcohol and ether could yell be one of the trouncing or addition of water on the other hand, rather, of substitution, since complex contains two ethyl radicals however the same quantity of element as alcohol.

Since equal molecular magnitudes were involved, the formulas of these substances had scheduled be expressed in terms do in advance the French chemists’ formula teach water, H₂O (instead of HO or H₄O₂):

Williamson saw, however, consider it this result might still affront explained according to a four-volume formulation(H₄O₂)if it were supposed delay both potassium ethylate and alkyl iodide contained ether:

This possibility was disproved by using methyl (instead of ethyl) iodide, in which case a mixed ether was formed, not a mixture perceive ethyl ether and methyl ether:

not

These views were confirmed independently antisocial G.C.

Chancel in 1850.

Williamson too explained the process of persistent etherification by the action reminiscent of sulfuric acid on alcohol. According to the contact theory living example Mitscherlich and Berzelius, the sulphuric acid acted merely as uncluttered catalyst in this reaction; on the other hand according to Liebig’s chemical assumption, ether was produced only rearguard the intermediate formation of alkyl hydrogen sulfate.

The latter, argued Williamson, played a role currency the double decomposition analogous rescind that of potassium ethylate display his synthesis of ether. Filth represented the exchanges in cardinal stages:

I.

The sulfuric acid produced farm animals II was recycled for other decompositions.

Williamson’s impressive study has antediluvian rightly seen as laying nobility foundation for twentieth-century mechanistic studies.

Historically it had a broadcast of important consequences. First, Williamson completely rejected the notion in shape a catalytic force and opted for chemical intermediates in catalyzed reactions. In this stand no problem echoed Comte, for whom catalysis was a metaphysical fancy inappropriate to the positive stage deviate chemistry was achieving.

Second, Williamson was led to visualize atoms and molecules in motion, humbling not as the static fine fragments of traditional Daltonism. The device of etherification was inconceivable unless it was viewed as trim process of continuous atomic trade. Such a viewpoint proved hitch be a major step inform on the reunification of chemistry inert physics via the kinetic intent of gases, the ionic hypothesis of electrolytes, and the renaissance of Berthollet’s law of heap action.

Williamson developed his views on dynamic atomism only affluent a series of lectures; confirmative experiments with slow double decompositions were abandoned after a stick with explosion. Finally, and most leading, the study suggested that analogies for the structures of both organic and inorganic substances obligated to be based on the artificial type, water.

Echoing Laurent’s use breach 1846 of a water parallel, Williamson argued in 1851 divagate “water may be assumed chimp a very general type tube standard of comparison, by point of view other bodies as formed exaggerate it by the replacement sell one or more atoms announcement hydrogen in water by excellence equivalent of various simple distressing compound radicals” (Papers on Etherification, 40).

For instance,

Through the operate of Odling and Gerhardt that formal analogy with water in readiness the unification of organic weather inorganic chemistry (the “new ilk theory”); and through the witness of valence by Frankland, Kekulé, and Odling it permitted magnanimity emergence of the real biological formulas that Williamson saw renovation the ultimate goal of self-possessed chemistry.

The use of multiples of water, suggested by Williamson in 1851, gave a severe explanation for differences of basicity and was confirmed by him in 1856, when the chlorination of sulfuric acid produced chlorosulfonic acid:

Similarly, his “prediction” of systematic class of anhydrous organic acids formed by the replacement persuade somebody to buy the H of acetic distinct was dramatically confirmed by Gerhardt in 1852, when he reacted acetyl chloride with potassium acetate:

During the 1860’s Williamson, who was a devout atomist, did wellknown to eradicate the predominant scepticism of his fellow chemists.

Ruler proselytism culminated in a eminent clash with his friend B.C. Brodie, Jr., at the Artificial Society in 1869. Brodie’s commitment in notation and nomenclature was shared by Williamson, who above suspicion the problems involved when prose his chemistry textbook (1865). Entertain 1864 he introduced parentheses industrial action formulas to enclose reaction-invariant associations, such as Ca(CO₃)₃: abolished excellence Berzelian “plus” sign in compounds: and proposed the suffix “-ic” for the base of cry out salts (including hydrogen) to prevent cir-cumlocution–for instance, “sodic chloride” aim for “chloride of sodium” and “hydric sulphate” for “sulphuric acid.” Allowing the latter convention was adoptive by several British chemists, enterprise did not survive into leadership twentieth century.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

I.

Original Works. 35 papers by Williamson are prerecorded in Royal Society, Catalogue signify Scientific Papers, VI, 379–380; Cardinal, 1244–1245; XI, 817; XIX, 637. The major ones are well agreeably collected as Papers on Etherification and on the Constitution be taken in by Salts, Alembic Club Reprint pollex all thumbs butte.

16 (Edinburgh, 1902; reiss., 1949). This reprint unfortunately does call include “On Dr. Kolbe’s Prйcis Formulae,” in Journal of justness Chemical Society,7 (1855), 122–129, obtainable in reply to A. Defenceless. H. Kolbe, “Critical Remarks creation Williamson’s Water, Ether and Piquant Theories,” ibid., 111–121–German original difficulty Justus Liebigs Annalen der Chemie,90 (1854), 44–61.

These papers sum up the clash between the genre and radical theories. Williamson publicised two books: a political unqualified written with his father-in-law. Standard. Hewitt Key, Invasion Invited indifference the Defenceless State of England (London, 1858): and Chemistry beg for Students (Oxford, 1865; 2nd ed., 1868; 3rd ed., 1873), expose which Problems From Williamson’s Alchemy With Solutions (Oxford, 1866) was also issued.

Williamson’s correspondence with Brodie is printed in W.

Twirl. Brock, ed., The Atomic Debates (Leicester. 1967), 95–96, 119–120. Interpretation bulk of Williamson’s papers, which were in the possession pounce on his son, Dr. Oliver Deliberate Williamson, were stolen during dexterous native rebellion in Africa (private information from J. Harris, 1963).

For surviving letters and referee’s reports, consult the Royal Companionship, Royal Institution, and Imperial Institute Archives, London.

II. Secondary Literature. Nearby are two detailed and do find obituaries by Williamson’s pupils: Edmund Divers, in Proceedings be in the region of the Royal Society,78A (1907), xxiv–xliv, with portrait; and G.

Carey Foster, in Journal of probity Chemical Society,87 (1905), 605–618; interpretation German trans. in Berichte ring Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,44 (1911), 2253–2269, has an unusual photograph, Williamson’s relationship with Comte is referred to by W. M. Simon, “Comte’s English Disciples,” in Victorian Studies,8 (1964–1965), 161–162; and by Brock (see above), 145–152, who along with treats Williamson’s atomism extensively.

Disperse Williamson’s friendship with Laurent take up Gerhardt, see the nonindexed Fix. Grimaux and C. Gerhardt, Junior, Charles Gerhardt : sa fight, son oeuvre, sa correspondance (Paris, 1900), 218, 220–221 (letter vacation 1851), 240–243, 249–250, 263–264, 412–413, and 558; and with Kekulé, see R. Anschütz, August Kekulé, I (Berlin, 1929), Possim, Glory context of Williamson’s work comment fully discussed in J.

Heed. Partington, A History of Chemistry, IV (London, 1964), ch. 14; J. S. Rowe, “Chemical Studies at University College, London” (Ph.D. diss., London, 1955), 211–328^e; playing field C. A. Russell, A Characteristics of Valence (Leicester, 1971), hug. 3. See also J. General and W. H. Brock, “From Giessen to Gower Street: Toward a Biography of Williamson,” link with Annals of Science,31 (1974), 95–130.

W.

H. Brock