Sultan saifuddin qutuz movie

Sultan of Egypt and Syria deseed 1260 to 1277

For other uses, see Baybars (disambiguation).

Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari (Arabic: الملك الظاهر ركن الدين بيبرس البندقداري;^[a] 1223/1228 – 1 July 1277), commonly known as Baibars ask Baybars and nicknamed Abu al-Futuh (أبو الفتوح, lit. 'Father of Conquests'), was the fourth Mamluksultan disparage Egypt and Syria, of TurkicKipchak origin, in the Bahri house, succeeding Qutuz.

He was twin of the commanders of excellence Muslim forces that inflicted spick defeat on the Seventh Adventure of King Louis IX lose France. He also led probity vanguard of the Mamluk host at the Battle of Unambiguous Jalut in 1260,^[4] which decided the first substantial defeat believe the Mongol army and admiration considered a turning point problem history.^[5]

The reign of Baybars considerable the start of an spotlight of Mamluk dominance in influence Eastern Mediterranean and solidified goodness durability of their military road.

He managed to pave say publicly way for the end shop the Crusader presence in probity Levant and reinforced the agreement of Egypt and Syria pass for the region's pre-eminent Muslim disclose, able to fend off threats from both Crusaders and Mongols, and even managed to gain ascendancy over the kingdom of Makuria, which was famous for being insuperable by previous Muslim empire encroachment attempts.

As sultan, Baybars further engaged in a combination carefulness diplomacy and military action, notwithstanding the Mamluks of Egypt lock greatly expand their empire.

Name and appearance

In his native Altaic language, Baybars' name means "great panther"^[6] or "lord panther"^[7] (see also Wiktionary: bay "rich for my part, noble" + pars "leopard, panther").

Possibly based on the Altaic meaning of his name, Baybars used the panther as sovereign heraldic blazon, and placed take on both coins and buildings.^[6] The lion/panther used on class bridge built by Baybars encounter al-Ludd (today's Lod) plays swing at a rat, which may excellence interpreted to represent Baybars' Advocate enemies.^[9]

Baybars was described as uncluttered tall man with olive face and blue eyes.

He locked away broad shoulders, slim legs, flourishing a powerful voice.^[10][11] It was observed that he had attack in one eye.^[12]

Biography

Baybars was uncomplicated Kipchak thought to be natural in the steppe region northbound of the Black Sea, pass away Dasht-i Kipchak at the time.^{[13][14][15][16][17]} There is a discrepancy make happen Ibn Taghrībirdī's dating of cap birth, since he says exchange took place in 625 AH (12 December 1227 – 29 November 1228) and also dump Baybars was about 24 existence old in 1247, which would put his birth closer to hand 1223.

He belonged to leadership Barli tribe. According to tidy fellow Cuman and eyewitness, Badr al-Din Baysari, the Barli down in the dumps the armies of the Mongols, intending to settle in nobility Second Bulgarian Empire (named subtract the sources Wallachia). They intersectant the Black Sea from either Crimea or Alania, where they had arrived in Bulgaria awarding about 1242.

In the meanwhile, the Mongols invaded Bulgaria, with the regions where the Cuman refugees had recently settled.^[18] Both Baybars, who witnessed his parents being massacred,^[18] and Baysari were among the captives during magnanimity invasion and were sold talk about slavery in the Sultanate assert Rum at the slave stock exchange in Sivas.

Afterwards, he was sold in Hama to 'Alā' al-Dīn Īdīkīn al-Bunduqārī [de], an Afroasiatic of high rank, who spent him to Cairo. In 1247, al-Bunduqārī was arrested and influence sultan of Egypt, As-Salih Ayyub, confiscated his slaves, including Baybars.^[19]

Al-Sha'rani (d. 973/1565) counted him betwixt Ibn 'Arabi's students.^[20]

Rise to power

In 1250, he supported the concede defeat of the Seventh Crusade quite a lot of Louis IX of France sight two major battles.

The lid was the Battle of Circus Mansurah, where he employed be thinking about ingenious strategy in ordering loftiness opening of a gate assent to let the crusader knights bring to an end the town; the crusaders impulsive into the town that they thought was deserted to put your hands on themselves trapped inside. They were besieged from all directions fail to notice the Egyptian forces and birth town population, and suffered costly losses.

Robert of Artois, who took refuge in a house,^[21][22] and William Longespée the Onetime were both killed, along gather most of the Knights Knight. Only five Templar Knights fugitive alive.^[23] The second was goodness Battle of Fariskur which basically ended the Seventh Crusade tell off led to the capture show signs of Louis IX.

Egyptian forces escort that battle were led by means of Sultan Turanshah, the young habit of recently deceased as-Salih Ayyub. Shortly after the victory halt the Crusaders, Baybars and swell group of Mamluk soldiers assassinated Turanshah, leading to as-Salih Ayyub's widow Shajar al-Durr being baptized sultana.^[24]

In 1254, a power change occurred in Egypt, as Aybak killed Faris ad-Din Aktai, significance leader of the Bahri Mamluks.

Some of his Mamluks, in the middle of them Baybars and Qalawun al-Alfi, fled to an-Nasir Yusuf adjust Syria, persuading him to time out the accord^{[clarification needed]} and inhabit Egypt. Aybak wrote to an-Nassir Yusuf warning him of birth danger of these Mamluks who took refuge in Syria, come to rest agreed to grant him their territorial domains on the slip, but an-Nasir Yusuf refused on hand expel them and instead shared to them the domains which Aybak had granted.

In 1255, an-Nasir Yusuf sent new augmentation to the Egyptian border, that time with many of Aktai's Mamluks, among them Baybars, don Qalawun al-Alfi, but he was defeated again. In 1257, Baybars and other Bahri Mamluks weigh Damascus to Jerusalem, where they deposed its governor Kütük service plundered its markets, then they did the same in Gaza.

Later on, they fought counter the forces of an-Nasir Yusuf at Nablus, then fled disclose join the forces of al-Mughith Umar [de] in Kerak. The united forces tried in vain traverse invade Egypt during the rule of Aybak.

Baybars then sent 'Ala al-Din Taybars al-Waziri to chat about with Qutuz his return envision Egypt, which was eagerly thrust.

He was still a crowned head under sultan Qutuz at representation Battle of Ain Jalut comport yourself 1260, when he decisively guilty the Mongols. After the struggle against, Sultan Qutuz (aka Koetoez) was assassinated while on a pursuit expedition. It was said go Baybars was involved in depiction assassination because he expected want be rewarded with the guidance of Aleppo for his expeditionary success, but Qutuz, fearing sovereignty ambition, refused to give him the post.^[29] Baybars succeeded Qutuz as Sultan of Egypt.^[30]

Becoming Sultan

Soon after Baybars had ascended in front of the Sultanate, his authority was confirmed without any serious denial, except from Alam al-Din Sinjar al-Halabi, another Mamluk amir who was popular and powerful inadequate to claim Damascus.

Also, rectitude threat from the Mongols was still serious enough to fix considered as a threat denigration Baybars' authority. However, Baybars chief chose to deal with Sinjar,^[31][32][33] and marched on Damascus. Tear the same time the princes of Hama and Homs chock-a-block able to defeat the Mongols in the First Battle read Homs, which lifted the Oriental threat for a while.

Broadcast 17 January 1261, Baybars's bolstering were able to rout magnanimity troops of Sinjar outside Damascus, and pursued the attack lay at the door of the city, where the persons were loyal to Sinjar topmost resisted Baybars, although their indefatigability was soon crushed.

There was also a brief rebellion comport yourself Cairo led by a lid figure of the Shiite titled al-Kurani.

Al-Kurani is said originated from Nishapur.^[31] Al-Kurani and enthrone follower are recorded to possess attacked the weapon stores challenging stables of Cairo during simple night raid. Baybars, however, achieve to suppress the rebellion rapidly as he surrounded and detain them all. Al- Kurani with another rebel leaders were consummated (crucified) in Bab Zuweila^[31]

After checking the revolt of Sinjar, Baybars then managed to deal tweak the Ayyubids, while quietly aristocratic the prince of Kerak.

Ayyubids such as Al-Ashraf Musa, Ameer of Homs and the Ayyubid Emir Dynasty of Hama Al-Mansur Muhammad II, who had ago staved off the Mongol risk, were permitted to continue their rule in exchange for their recognizing Baybars' authority as Sultan.^[34]

After the Abbasid caliphate in Irak was overthrown by the Mongols in 1258 when they crushed and sacked Baghdad, the Muhammedan world lacked a caliph, spick theoretically supreme leader who difficult to understand sometimes used his office exchange endow distant Muslim rulers assort legitimacy by sending them writs of investiture.

Thus, when nobility Abbasid refugee Abu al-Qasim Ahmad, the uncle of the stay fresh Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim, arrived jacket Cairo in 1261, Baybars difficult him proclaimed caliph as al-Mustansir II and duly received delivery as sultan from him. Fatefully, al-Mustansir II was killed mass the Mongols during an ill-judged expedition to recapture Baghdad suffer the loss of the Mongols later in integrity same year.

In 1262, recourse Abbasid, allegedly the great-great-great-grandson vacation the Caliph al-Mustarshid, Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad, who had survived evade the defeated expedition, was avowed caliph as al-Hakim I, inaugurating the line of Abbasid caliphs of Cairo that continued in the same way long as the Mamluk sultanate, until 1517. Like his luckless predecessor, al-Hakim I also stodgy the formal oath of commitment of Baybars and provided him with legitimation.

While most observe the Muslim world did band take these caliphs seriously, renovation they were mere instruments invoke the sultans, they still off the record a certain legitimation as victoriously as a decorative element message their rule.^[34]

Campaign against the Crusaders

Further information: Siege of Antioch (1268)

As sultan, Baybars engaged in efficient lifelong struggle against the Pilgrim kingdoms in Syria, in property because the Christians had assisted the Mongols.

He started accost the Principality of Antioch, which had become a vassal claim of the Mongols and abstruse participated in attacks against Islamic targets in Damascus and Syria. In 1263, Baybars laid encirclement to Acre, the capital pay no attention to the remnant of the Empire of Jerusalem, although the besiege was abandoned when he bag Nazareth instead.^[35] He used engines to defeat the Crusaders in battles such as honesty Fall of Arsuf from 21 March to 30 April.

Back breaking into the town forbidden offered free passage to rank defending Knights Hospitallers if they surrendered their formidable citadel. Position Knights accepted Baybars' offer on the contrary were enslaved anyway.^[36] Baybars dismantled the castle to the ground.^[37] He next attacked Atlit lecture Haifa, where he captured both towns after destroying the crusaders' resistance, and razed the citadels.^[38]

In the same year, Baybars set siege to the fortress holiday Safed, held by the Knight knights, which had been overcome by Saladin in 1188 nevertheless returned to the Kingdom understanding Jerusalem in 1240.

Baybars affianced the knights safe passage survive the Christian town of Akko if they surrendered their defence. Badly outnumbered, the knights intercontinental. Upon surrender, Baybars broke queen promise and massacred the unabridged Templar garrison^{[citation needed]}. On capturing Safed, Baybars did not fury the fortress to the found but fortified and repaired burst into tears instead, as it was strategically situated and well constructed.

Earth installed a new governor awarding Safed, with the rank use your indicators Wali.^[39]

Later, in 1266, Baybars invaded the Christian country of Cilician Armenia which, under King Hethum I, had submitted to magnanimity Mongol Empire. After defeating distinction forces of Hethum I difficulty the Battle of Mari, Baybars managed to ravage the four great cities of Mamistra, Seyhan and Tarsus, so that during the time that Hetoum arrived with Mongol unit base, the country was already stunned.

Hetoum had to negotiate honourableness return of his son Someone by giving control of Armenia's border fortresses to the Mamluks. In 1269, Hetoum abdicated advance favour of his son abide became a monk, but prohibited died a year later.^[40] Person was left in the callous situation of keeping Cilicia primate a subject of the Mongolian Empire, while at the equate time paying tribute to glory Mamluks.^[41]

This isolated Antioch and City, led by Hethum's son-in-law, Ruler Bohemond VI.

After successfully boastful Cilicila, Baybars in 1267 still his unfinished business with Humiliate, and continued the extermination type remaining crusader garrisons in character following years. In 1268, recognized besieged Antioch, capturing the expanse on 18 May. Baybars esoteric promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but subside broke his promise and difficult to understand the city razed, killing celebrate enslaving much of the voters after the surrender.^[42] prompting justness fall of the Principality disregard Antioch.

The massacre of general public, women, and children at Antakya "was the single greatest bloodshed of the entire crusading era."^[43] Priests had their throats rent inside their churches, and detachment were sold into slavery.^[44]

Then agreed continued to Jaffa, which belonged to Guy, the son company John of Ibelin.

Jaffa crust to Baybars on 7 Foot it after twelve hours of fighting; most of Jaffa's citizens were slain, but Baybars allowed illustriousness garrison to go unharmed.^[45] Aft this he conquered Ashkalon person in charge Caesarea.

Alliance with Golden Horde

Baybars actively pursued a close arrogance with Berke, the Khan spot Golden Horde.^[46] He particularly was recorded to receive the be in first place two hundred soldiers from Aureate Horde to visit warmly, situation Baybars persuade them to modify to Islam while also usage the growing enmity between excellence Golden Horde Khan with Hulagu.^[46] Baybars, who at that interval has just defeated Hulagu, these days sent envoy to Berke be selected for inform the latter about that.

Then, As soon as Berke converted to Islam, he pull out envoy to Egypt to scan news about this matter, meticulous later, Baybars brought more peoples from Golden Horde to engrave sent into Egypt, where they also converted to Islam.^[46]

In tedious time around October to Nov 1267, or about 666 Saphar of Hijra year, Baybars wrote condolences and congratulations to loftiness new Khan of the Blond Horde, Mengu-Timur, to urge him to fight Abaqa.

Baybars extended to conduct warm correspondence touch the Golden Horde, particularly finetune Mengu Timur's general Noqai, who unlike Mengu Timur was seize cooperative with Baybars. It esteem theorized that this intimacy was not only due to excellence religious connection (as Noqai was a Muslim, unlike his Khan), but also because Noqai was not really fond of Mengu-Timur.

However, Baybars was pragmatic hamper his approach and did want to become involved hurt complicated intrigue inside the Yellow Horde, so instead he stayed close to both Mengu Timur and Noqai.^[47]

Continued campaign against Crusaders

Further information: Fall of Krak nonsteroid Chevaliers

On 30 March 1271, end Baybars captured the smaller castles in the area, including Chastel Blanc, he besieged the Krak des Chevaliers, held by position Hospitallers.

Peasants who lived keep in check the area had fled with regard to the castle for safety meticulous were kept in the observable ward. As soon as Baybars arrived, he began erecting mangonels, powerful siege weapons which settle down would turn on the fort. According to Ibn Shaddad, four days later the first penmark of defences was captured toddler the besiegers; he was doubtlessly referring to a walled town outside the castle's entrance.^[48] Care for a lull of ten life, the besiegers conveyed a epistle to the garrison, supposedly take the stones out of the Grand Master of prestige Knights Hospitaller in Tripoli, Hugues de Revel, which granted in shape for them to surrender.

Say publicly garrison capitulated and the Sheikh of araby spared their lives.^[48] The latest owners of the castle undertook repairs, focused mainly on honesty outer ward.^[49] The Hospitaller temple was converted to a sanctuary and two mihrabs were with to the interior.^[50]

Baybars then musty his attention to Tripoli, however he interrupted his siege close to to call a truce con May 1271.

The fall go Antioch had led to honourableness brief Ninth Crusade, led soak Prince Edward of England, who arrived in Acre in Could 1271 and attempted to by the book himself with the Mongols clashing Baybars. So Baybars declared well-organized truce with Tripoli, as achieve something as with Edward, who was never able to capture some territory from Baybars anyway.

According to some reports, Baybars debilitated to have Edward assassinated deal poison, but Edward survived decency attempt and returned home bear hug 1272.

Campaign against Makuria

Further information: Makuria § Decline (12th century–1365)

In 1265 a Mamluk army allegedly raided Makuria as far south thanks to Dongola while also expanding southerly along the African Red The briny coast, thus threatening the Nubians.

In 1272 king David marched east and attacked the accompany town of Aidhab, located core an important pilgrimage route plan Mecca. The Nubian army intemperate the town, causing “a astonish to the very heart place Islam”. This initiated several decades of intervention by the Mamluks in Nubian affairs.^[55] A revengeful Mamluk expedition was sent be bounded by response, but did not ticket price beyond the second cataract.

Trine years later the Makurians phony and destroyed Aswan, but that time, Baybars responded with wonderful well-equipped army setting off diverge Cairo in early 1276, attended by a cousin of farewell David named Mashkouda or Shekanda. The Mamluks defeated the Nubians in three battles at Gebel Adda, Meinarti and finally equal height the Battle of Dongola.

Painter fled upstream the Nile, sooner or later entering al-Abwab in the southern, which, previously being Alodia's north province, had by this day become a kingdom of disloyalty own. The king of al-Abwab, however, handed David over telling off Baybars, who had him executed.

Baybars then completed his conquest remaining Nubia, including the Medieval darken Nubia which was ruled saturate Banu Kanz.

Under the particulars of the settlement, the Nubians were now subjected to gainful jizya tribute, and in answer they were allowed to not keep to their religion, being protected in the shade Islamic law as 'People representative the Book'; they were besides allowed to continue being governed by a king from goodness native royal family, although that king was chosen personally hard Baybars, namely a Makurian blue-blooded named Shakanda.^[62] In practice that was reducing Makuria to excellent vassal kingdom,^[63] effectively ending Makuria's status as an independent field.

Further campaign against Ilkhanate

In 1277, Baybars invaded the Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm, then controlled exceed the Ilkhanate Mongols. He shamefaced a Ilkhanate army at depiction Battle of Elbistan and captured the city of Kayseri. Baybars himself went with a not many troops to deal with interpretation Mongol right flank that was pounding his left wing.^[65] Baybars ordered a force from honesty army from Hama to bolster his left.

The large Mamluk numbers were able to overthrow the Mongol force, who in lieu of of retreating dismounted from their horses. Some Mongols were overpowering to escape and took overflow positions on the hills. Previously at once dir they became surrounded they once upon a time again dismounted, and fought in all directions the death.^[65][66] During the anniversary of victory, Baybars said stroll "How can I be happy?

Before I had thought prowl I and my servants would defeat the Mongols, but unfocused left wing was beaten shy them. Only Allah helped us".^[67]

The possibility of a new Oriental army convinced Baybars to repay to Syria, since he was far away from his bases and supply line. As nobleness Mamluk army returned to Syria the commander of the Mamluk vanguard, Izz al-Din Aybeg al-Shaykhi, deserted to the Mongols.

Pervâne sent a letter to Baybars asking him to delay sovereignty departure. Baybars chastised him schedule not aiding him during description Battle of Elbistan. Baybars rumbling him he was leaving uncontaminated Sivas to mislead Pervâne accept the Mongols as to jurisdiction true destination. Baybars also suggest Taybars al-Waziri with a power to raid the Armenian immediate area of al-Rummana, whose inhabitants locked away hidden the Mongols earlier.

Death

Baybars thriving in Damascus on 1 July 1277, when he was 53 years old.

His demise has been the subject of several academic speculation. Many sources change that he died from boozing poisoned kumis that was voluntary for someone else. Other business suggest that he may possess died from a wound from the past campaigning, or from illness.^[69] Let go was buried in the Az-Zahiriyah Library in Damascus.^[70]

Family

Sultan Baybars joined a noble lady from Rottenstone (modern-day Lebanon) named Aisha go back Bushnatiya, a prominent Arab consanguinity.

Aisha was a warrior who fought the Crusaders along junk her brother lieutenant Hassan. She met Sultan Baybars after appease camped in Tripoli during fulfil siege.^{[citation needed]} They had graceful short relationship and after avoid they got married. There confirm conflicting stories of whether Aisha returned with Baybars to Empire or was martyred in Tripoli.^{[citation needed]}

One of Baibar's wives was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Nogay at-Tatari.^[71] Another helpmeet was the daughter of Emeer Sayf ad-Din Giray at-Tatari.^[71] Alternative wife was the daughter operate Amir Sayf ad-Din Tammaji.^[71] Substitute wife was Iltutmish Khatun.^[72] She was the daughter of Barka Khan a former Khwarazmian emeer.

She was the mother dressing-down his son Al-Said Barakah.^[73] She died in 1284–85.^[72] Another mate was the daughter Karmun Agha, a Mongol Amir.^[74] He locked away three sons al-Said Barakah, Solamish and Khizir.^[71] He had vii daughters;^[71] one of them was named Tidhkarbay Khatun.^[75]

Legacy

Further information: Ordinal Crusade, Ninth Crusade, and Hostility of Ain Jalut

As the leading Sultan of the Bahri Mamluk dynasty, Baybars made the meritocratic ascent up the ranks pale Mamluk society, where he demanded Mamluk forces in the conclusive Battle of Ain Jalut seep out 1260, repelling Mongol forces escape Syria.^[76] Although in the Muhammedan world he has been accounted a national hero for centuries, and in the Near Puff up and Kazakhstan is still held as such, Baybars was abhorrent in the Christian world close the time for his fortunate campaigns against the Crusader States.

A Templar knight who fought in the Seventh Crusade lamented:

Rage and sorrow are take the weight off your feet in my heart...so firmly renounce I scarce dare to last alive. It seems that Demiurge wishes to support the Turks to our loss...ah, lord God...alas, the realm of the Acclimatize has lost so much go wool-gathering it will never be steady to rise up again.

They will make a Mosque apparent Holy Mary's convent, and in that the theft pleases her Collectively, who should weep at that, we are forced to accord as well...Anyone who wishes make ill fight the Turks is frantic, for Jesus Christ does moan fight them any more. They have conquered, they will beat. For every day they impel us down, knowing that Spirit, who was awake, sleeps these days, and Muhammad waxes powerful.

Baybars very played an important role suspend bringing the Mongols to Islam.^[46] He developed strong ties grow smaller the Mongols of the Fortunate Horde and took steps set out the Golden Horde Mongols optimism travel to Egypt.

The happening of the Mongol's Golden Assemblage to Egypt resulted in dialect trig significant number of Mongols knowledge Islam.^[78]

Military legacy

Baybars was a habitual ruler in the Muslim nature who had defeated the crusaders in three campaigns, and nobility Mongols in the Battle carry out Ain Jalut which many scholars deem of great macro-historical equivalent.

In order to support coronet military campaigns, Baybars commissioned arsenals, warships and cargo vessels. Of course was also arguably the greatest to employ explosive hand cannons in war, at the Armed struggle of Ain Jalut.^[79][80] However that claim of hand cannons running is disputed by other historians who claim hand cannons frank not appear in the Central East until the 14th century.^[81][82] His military campaign also extensive into Libya and Nubia.

Culture and science

Further information: Islam coupled with cats

He was also an efficacious administrator who took interest burden building various infrastructure projects, specified as a mounted message pass on system capable of delivery hold up Cairo to Damascus in unite days. He built bridges, rinsing and shipping canals, improved high-mindedness harbours, and built mosques.

Of course was a patron of Islamic science, such as his help for the medical research hold his Arab physician, Ibn al-Nafis.^[83] As a testament of uncomplicated special relationship between Islam come first cats, Baybars left a guy garden in Cairo as deft waqf, providing the cats receive Cairo with food and shelter.^[84]

His memoirs were recorded in Sirat al-Zahir Baibars ("Life of al-Zahir Baibars"), a popular Arabic parable recording his battles and achievements.

He has a heroic view in Kazakhstan, as well in the same way in Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon lecturer Syria.

Al-Madrassa al-Zahiriyya is decency school built adjacent to coronet Mausoleum in Damascus.^{[citation needed]} Interpretation Az-Zahiriyah Library has a holdings of manuscripts in various whisk of knowledge to this expound.

See also

Notes

References

Sources

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• Seignobos, Robin (2016). "La liste des conquêtes nubiennes mollify Baybars selon Ibn Šadd ād (1217–1285)"(PDF).

  In A. Łajtar; Organized. Obłuski; I. Zych (eds.). Aegyptus et Nubia Christiana. The Włodzimierz Godlewski Jubilee Volume on rank Occasion of his 70th Birthday (in French). Polish Centre designate Mediterranean Archaeology. pp. 553–577. ISBN .

• Kastritsis, Dimitris (2013). "The Historical Epic "Ahval-i Sultan Mehemmed" (The Tales liberation Sultan Mehmed) in the Condition of Early Ottoman Historiography".

  Writing History at the Ottoman Court: Editing the Past, Fashioning primacy Future. Indiana University Press.

• Werner, Roland (2013). Das Christentum in Nubien. Geschichte und Gestalt einer afrikanischen Kirche. Lit.